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Chemical Reactions Chemical Reactions II

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Continued part II

Contiunuando with the type of reactions that we are reviewing now propose the following mathematical model: A + BC ---------------------
- AC + B
This type of reaction is known as "simple substitution" is defined as one in which the atoms of a moving element in a compound the atoms of another element. It should be noted that the shift happens as long as the substituent atom (A), have greater activity than the substituted atom (B).
Examples:
Zn + 2HCl ↑ ----------------------- ZnCl2 + H2 Fe + H2S
------------ ------------ FeS + H2 ↑ ------------------------- 2HBr
Cl2 + 2HCl + Br 2 ↑
Finally, we describe another type of reaction is generally carried out in solution water, where ions are present and there is an exchange between them. This type of reaction is called "double replacement" and is presented by the following mathematical model:
A + B + C + D -------------------- ------- A + D + C + B
Examples:
HCl + NaOH NaCl + ---------------------------
H2O AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3 ----------------------
---------------- BaSO4 + NaHCO3 ------------------------ Ba (HCO3) + Na2SO4 conclude

that in accordance with the formation or breaking of the bonds of the substances involved in chemical reactions, they can be classified into four types:
1. Abstract: A + B AB
------------- 2. Analysis: ---------------- A + B AB Energy

3. Simple substitution: A + BC AC + B
--------------- 4. Double Replacement: AB + CD AD + CB
-----------------
To successfully complete the chemical reaction products must observe the following rules:
1. Enter the symbol of the elements involved.
2. Write the oxidation number of each item.
3. The element with oxidation number positive (metal) or cation, is always on the left.
4. The element with a negative oxidation number (no metal) or anion, is always on the right.
5. Exchange as subscripts the oxidation numbers of each element, ignoring the sign.
6. The algebraic sum of oxidation numbers of elements, multiplied by the subscripts must be equal to zero.
7. The oxidation number of hydrogen in its compounds is + 1, except in the case of metal hydrides is 1.
8. The oxidation number of oxygen in its compounds is 2, except in peroxides, which is 1.
9. All elements in pure or uncombined have the oxidation number zero.

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I

chemical changes in matter occur when there is a transformation, both in composition and in its structure, these changes are carried out through chemical reactions.
In fact most of the items we buy or consume, require for their development of chemical processes, sufficient to investigate how they were made, the following items of daily use (cleaning, food, drinks, medicines, etc.) To verify that all they are the result of a series of chemical reactions. However, there are an infinite number of processes ocurren a nuestro alrededor (crecimiento de las plantas, animales y el ser humano, la oxidación de los metales, la combustión de la madera, etc.) y que por su cotidianidad, se ven como hechos comunes, sin meditar que son productos de procesos químicos muy complicados.
Es importante el conocimiento de las reacciones químicas para poder controlarlas, y hacer que las substancias se conviertan en otras que satisfagan nuestras necesidades, intentando siempre utilizarlas en beneficio del hombre, reduciendo y previniendo el deterioro de nuestro ambiente.
En la mayoría de las reacciones químicas, los átomos, moléculas o iones que constituyen a las substancias que reaccionan (reactivos), al hacerlo sufren un reordenamiento as a result of the breakdown and formation of new links between them, giving rise to new substances with different characteristics (products).
For example, when we burn sulfur (S), we observed that forms a gas, which is the sulfur dioxide (SO2). This chemical reaction takes place by breaking the covalent bonds of sulfur (S) and oxygen (O), and covalent bond formation between sulfur (S) and oxygen (O) at (SO2).
The above reaction can be expressed by symbols and formulas of the substances involved.
--------------- S + O2 SO2
HEAT
We conclude that a chemical equation is the representation Abbreviations and symbols of a chemical reaction also provides a means to show a chemical shift reagents and products, its atomic composition and molecular relationship where involved. Usually the chemical reactions used to describe the initial and final states of the process.

usually written on the left, ie the first member of symbols and formulas of the substances of the initial substances, reagents and reactants: NaCl + AgNO3
-------------- -------------------- NaNO3 + AgCl

reagents

To the right of the equation or second member, written symbols or formulas substances that form, or reaction products.
NaCl + NaNO3 + AgCl AgNO3
----------------------------------

products In order to represent more consistent with a reaction, it is necessary that the symbols and formulas of the participating species present all the physical and chemical properties. For example: (g) ₌ gas, (l) ₌ liquid (s) ₌ solid, (c) ₌ aqueous solution (E) Δ ₌ ₌ heat energy, (↑) ₌ evolved gas in the process, ( ↓) ₌ solid that precipitates, (→) ₌ irreversible reaction; (↔) ₌ reversible reaction. Example
;
2KClO3 (s) + heat ------------------- 2 KCl (S) + 3O2 (g) ↑
Na (s) + H2O --- ------------------- NaOH (aq) + ½ H2 (g) ↑

TYPES OF REACTIONS
can be observed that the formulas of the substances involved in the process are affected by a coefficient, which indicates the number of atoms or moles, which are involved in this process. Accordingly we can write a general equation as follows: mA + nB
xC + yD
------------------- Where m, n, x, y. . Are coefficients of each term
If we consider the general equation that and ₌ 0, then nuesra equation becomes: mA + nB --------------------

xC or even
A + B ------ ------------ AB

This type of reaction, in which two or more simple chemical species together to form a single product or more complex species, is called: synthesis reaction.
Example:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) ---------------------------------- 2H2O (l )
H2 + Cl2 (g) ------------------------------- 2HCl (g)
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) ------------------------ H2SO3 (aq)
CaO (s) + H2O ------------ ---------- Ca (OH) 2 (c)
Considering that the coefficient "n" in equation cro general, then we get: -------------------------- mA
xC + yD
Another way of putting it is: --- AB
---------------------- A + B
This type of reaction is called analysis or decomposition, and is defined as one in which a species Chemistry is divided into two or more products through the application of external power source.
Examples: ------------------------
2H2O 2H2 + O2 ↑ ↑
2KClO3 ------------
Electricity ↑ 2KCl + 3O2 -----------------------------

CaCO3 ------------- Heat CaO + CO2 ↑ ----------------------

Thus we see that reaction Euna analysis is contrary to a synthesis reaction. Continued

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Group VAT Carbon is a nonmetal and is the element that started this group, which is also known as carbon family, the following two elements, silicon and germanium are metalloids; These first three elements form compounds with covalent character. Tin and lead, ending the group elements are metals.
The outer electron configuration of the elements of this group is (ns2np2). The present trend in the decrease of melting and boiling points of silicon to lead, indicating that the metallic nature of elements of this group is growing.
Carbon can be considered as the most important of this group, because from carbon are all organic compounds, ie the chemistry of life. Silicon is a very abundant element in Earth's crust and is used in the manufacture of chips for microcomputers. Germanium, as a semiconductor of electrical current, is used in the manufacture of transmitters, and the last, lead and tin are typical uses of metals. 6C
14Si 32Ge 50Sn 82Pb

VA
Group This group is known as a family of nitrogen. It is composed of nitrogen and phosphorus, which are non-metals; arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth, a metal. The outer electronic configuration has (ns2np3). Nitrogen, which exists as a diatomic gas, is a nonmetal, important as parent of the atmosphere (about 78%), and is vital for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a solid metal no biological significance to react with oxygen in the air violently burning off large amounts of heat. 33As 51Sb
83Bi 7N 15P


Form Group VIA's family consists of oxygen and oxygen, sulfur and selenium are nonmetals, as well as tellurium and polonium, which are metalloids. The outer electron configuration is presented (ns2np4). They tend to accept two electrons to complete its final layer to form ionic compounds with many metals.
The elements of this group of non-metals react with other groups to form molecular compounds, particularly oxygen, which is in the air as a diatomic molecule (O2) and ozone (O3). It is also very reactive, as it forms compounds with most elements. It is necessary for combustion and essential for life. 8O
34Se 16S 52Te 84Po


Known as Group VIIA halogen family show a very similar chemistry. The elements of this group are nonmetals and exist as diatomic molecules in their elemental state. Elements are very reactive at room temperature is liquid bromine and solid iodine. However, a radioactive element astatine and little is known about their properties. The outer electron configuration is presented (ns2np5) and tend to gain an electron to complete its last layer. Because of its high reactivity was not found in pure form in nature.; To anions that form to gain an electron are known as halides. Form ionic compounds with alkali or alkaline earth metals and molecular compounds between themselves or with other non-metals. 5I 35Br 17Cl 9F
85At

Group or Group VIIIA
zero in this group are the noble gases, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. Have their last full electronic layer (ns2np6), except helium, which is single layer (1s2), which is also full, hence, its tendency to combine with each other or with other components is low or almost nil. Do not have a tendency to gain electrons, because of this, for many years was called inert gases, it was thought that did not react. Currently, we have managed to synthesize some compounds, but is commonly used as pure gases.
Helium is the lightest. Compared with air, is the seventh of its weight, therefore, has considerable lifting power. Argon is an excellent conductor of heat, and is used in light bulbs and welding of magnesium to prevent rusting. Neon is widely used in retail, advertising lights. 10Ne 18Ar 36Kr 2HE
54Xe 86Rn



A Group B elements belonging to groups B in the periodic table are called transition elements, a transition element is one that has partially filled the orbital do f. They are located in the periods 4, 5, 6 and 7, those in the period 6 comprise the lanthanide series, and the period of 7, that of actinides, these two series are known as metal internal transition.
For the transition elements d-block, the atoms can have one and nine electrons in that orbital. When the d orbital is full, the item is no longer in transition. All transition elements are metals of great importance in the industrial level by high melting points and good mechanical properties.

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Periodic Table Periodic Table II

One of the major sources of information that the student account of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Biochemistry is the periodic table. Here the elements are classified based on the similarity of their properties, which repeated at regular intervals are called periodic properties.
The structure of the periodic table the proposals is due to Mendeleev, Meyer and Moseley, as well as A. Warner. In analyzing the periodic table the elements are ordered increasingly from its atomic number, divided into periods and groups, both horizontally and vertically, respectively. In addition, points out what metals, nonmetals, transition metals and other groups of elements known as rare earths.
The periodic table is a ranking of the 109 known chemical elements present, in order of increasing atomic number. There were several attempts that were made from 1817 to 1914 and more recently still, to classify elements.
The classification of elements based on atomic number resulting in the modern periodic table of Alfred Werner. This table contains all the elements found in nature as well as those obtained under laboratory conditions, and are arranged according to the electronic structure of atoms, showing a gradual accommodation of the valence electrons in energy levels {periods }. The elements have similar outer electron configurations, grouped in vertical columns are called families or groups.
also that the elements are located in the periodic table in ascending order, based on atomic number and, consequently, its electronic configuration, we can tell that it is also located kinds of elements, periods, groups or families and blocks.
classes of items.
When items are classified according to their physical and chemical characteristics, forming two main groups: metals and nonmetals. There is also a third set of elements that are characterized by the uncertainty of its properties located between metals and nonmetals, called metalloids or semimetals.

Metals Metals are recognized by their physical properties, such as metallic luster, electrical and thermal conductivity, hardness, ductility and malleability. In metals the same period is more reactive which has fewer electrons in its outer shell. Compared to sodium and aluminum, found in the second period, the more reactive sodium because it has a valence electron and aluminum has three, it is easier to give an electron to two or more. Na11
2P6 1s2 2s2 3s1 outer layer 1 valence electron
Al13 1s2 2s2 3s2 3p1 2P6 outer layer 3 valence electrons

Nonmetals Nonmetals are elements that tend to gain electrons to complete its outer shell with eight and thus achieve a stable configuration of noble gas. Are more reactive the lowest number atomic, because in this case the distance between the nucleus and the electrons of the last orbit is lower and, or both, the attraction of the nucleus to the electrons of other elements is greater. Thus, in the group of the most reactive halogen is fluorine, atomic number 9, and the less reactive is iodine, atomic number 53, because although both have seven electrons in its valence shell, the fluor are attracted more strongly, by being closer to the core, that iodine, which are at level five. Metalloids

The elements boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium, which are above and below of the ladder line that divides metals from nonmetals are called metalloids because their properties are intermediate between metals and nonmetals, for example, conduct electricity, but not so much metal.
periods long
The periodic table is composed of seven periods, arranged horizontally from 1 to 7. These numbers correspond to the energy levels of the atom, where electrons are located. The number of the period where it is located an item indicates the maximum level of energy in the atom of that element will have electrons, for example, iron (iron) is located in period 4, which is the maximum power level which has electrons. Fe26
2P6 1s2 2s2 3s2 4s2 3p6 3d6
maximum electron energy level
In the first three periods are called short periods, and the remaining four long periods. The following table shows the number of elements that make up each period.


periods (energy levels) No. of items sublevels Ends Begins in
February 1 H He Li 1s Ne
August 2 August 3
2s 2p 3s 3p Na Ar K
April 18 Kr 4s 3d 4p Rb
May 1918 Xe 5s 4d 5p
June 1932 Rn Cs 6s 4f 5d 6p Fr Une
July 23 5f 7s 6d periods
Features
As you can see in the periodic table, the seventh period, which begins with France, has empty places for new items that are expected to have properties similar to those of the group elements corresponding to them.

Groups or families are a set of elements with similar properties. Are arranged in vertical columns and are identified by Roman numerals I through VIII. They are divided into groups A and B. For the elements of groups A, the IA to VIIA is called representative elements, and group B, the transition elements.
Description of groups or families

Group IA elements belonging to this group are known as alkali metals. All are soft and bright (except for hydrogen, which is a non metal), highly reactive with air and water, hence, are not free in nature and when able to isolate, to avoid reacting, must be kept submerged in certain liquids such as oils or petroleum ether. React with VIIA group elements form ionic compounds.
Its outer electron configuration is (ns1), tend to lose this electron and stay with oxidation number + 1. These metals are more electropositive. Francium is the last element of this group is radioactive.
In the periodic table hydrogen is placed in this group due to single electron who owns it is a gaseous element and its properties are not the same as the rest of the alkali metals. 1H
3Li 11Na 37Rb 19K 56Cs 87Fr


Group IA IIA
Group have certain properties similar to alkali metals, but are a little less reactive and they are known as alkaline earth metal. With oxygen in the air form oxides and react with the elements of group VIIA (halogen) to form salts.
have completed his orbital s in its outer shell (ns2) and tend to lose these electrons taking the noble gas configuration above them, hence, its oxidation number is +2.
The reactivity of these metals increases as you move from top to down on the group: for example, beryllium and magnesium react with oxygen to form oxides only at elevated temperatures, while calcium, strontium and barium do at room temperature. The radio, as well as France, the former group, is a radioactive element. Group IIA 4BE

12mg 20Ca 38Sr 56Ba 88Ra

IIIA
Group This group is composed of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium and thallium. Boron is a metalloid, and the four remaining metallic elements, perhaps the most important properties and abundance is aluminum, which when combined with oxygen, forms a cover which prevents any further reaction, which is why this metal is used in the preparation of articles and structural materials. The outer electron configuration is presented (ns2 np1). These elements also form molecular compounds, which are characteristic of non-metals, this is explained by the electronic configuration and its present location in the table, as they move from left to right in the periodic table, the metallic nature of representative elements gradually begins to lose. 5B

13Al Group IIIA 31Ga 49In 81Tl

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inorganic chemical nomenclature

CONTINUED

The substances are characterized by their name and their physical and chemical properties. However, there are several names misused, confused or rare.
Examples:
oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid)
blue vitriol (copper sulphate)
quicklime (calcium oxide)
off Cal (calcium hydroxide)
If we were to give a complete list of the properties of such substances as melting point, boiling point, color, shape, etc., would be an endless list that hardly anyone can hold in memory, it is easier to name the substance and thus associate its properties.
best in the eyes of a chemical is, the formula. A formula as a symbol, representing a large amount of information quantitative and qualitative chemical. CHEMICAL FORMULAS

A formula is the representation of the manner in which it formed a compound. For example the formula: H2O, we say that water contains two elements hydrogen and oxygen O. H Also tells us that each water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The formula also tells us if the atoms are bound together by shared electrons (covalent bonds) or by electrostatic attraction of oppositely charged ions (link electrovalent).
What can we do to give names to many formulas?
The first is to use an appropriate nomenclature.
To facilitate communication between the formulas was a need to develop a unique language, systematic and uniform to identify chemicals. This language has been developed by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), which is under constant review in order to adapt to the compounds discovered every year. There
trivial nomenclature
compounds with names that have names that do not follow IUPAC rules, these names are considered trivial or common and learned in practice and not to rules and then some compounds are noted with their most common names : H2O Water


Ammonia NH3 N2H4 Hydrazine
Alumina Al2O3 CaO
Sosa Cal
NaOH KOH caustic potash


OXIDATION NUMBER
To remember the formulas of the compounds and write properly, it is useful to use a system called oxidation oxidation numbers. The oxidation number system was developed based on the composition of the compounds, the relative electronegativities of the elements forming compounds and a set of rules and arbitrary.
Some of these arbitrary rules are: a.
The oxidation number of an uncombined element is 0. B.
In a compound, the more electronegative elements have oxidation number negative, while the less electronegative elements have positive oxidation states. C.
In each formula of a compound, the sum of the negative oxidation numbers equals the sum of positive oxidation numbers, ie the algebraic sum of oxidation numbers of a compound should always be zero because molecules are neutral.
Examples:
₊ Na 1 Cl 1
Na2SO4 ₋ Na2 ₊ ₊ 1 S 6 O 4 2
CO2 ₋ calculate the oxidation
No. 2O7 Cl calculate the oxidation
No. OF2 calculate the oxidation
No. Table periodical is a guide to establish some criteria that will be useful for predicting the No. oxidation of the elements, according to the group to which they belong. Consider the following table:
GROUP IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA


No. oxidation
ng +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +2 +3 +4 +5

2 +1

+1 +2 +3 4 3 2 1


As shown, the IA group elements always have oxidation number of +1, (hydrogen when combined with metals have oxidation number 1, but when combined with nonmetals its oxidation number is +1).
in group VIA is the oxygen that is always a Oxidation number of 2 (only in the peroxide oxidation number is 1).
also shows that the elements of groups IVA, VA, VIA and VIIA, has variable oxidation numbers. This is because certain elements give or share electrons in several ways.
For example, the Fe (has variable oxidation number like other transition elements) shows the oxidation numbers of +2 and +3. To avoid ambiguity in the names of the compounds, indicating the number of oxidation with Roman numerals.
iron II chloride FeCl2 FeCl3
iron III chloride
iron II sulphate FeSO4
This type of nomenclature is very recent so in most texts, the standard nomenclature is a bit different. A compound of an element with lower oxidation number is given and the termination bear higher oxidation numbers given termination ico. Ferrous chloride

FeCl2 FeCl3 Ferric Chloride Ferrous Sulfate FeSO4

Fe 2 (SO4) 3

ferric sulphate

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Learning to name the chemicals

UNIT 3:
LEARNING TO APPOINT THE CHEMICALS

3.1: Sales, 3.2: Oxides; 3.3: Acids, 3.4 hydride, 3.5; Hydroxides

3.1: THE SALES

ionic compounds are formed two ions: a.
Cation called a positive ion in the formula is always written first, but is named at the end. B.
A negative ion called an anion, the formula is always written at the end and was named to the top.

cation: monatomic cations consist mostly of metallic elements. These ions are named the same element. Examples
;
March 2
Na ion Zn ion sodium ion zinc aluminum Al

If the element can form more than one positive ion, the positively charged ion indicated by the Roman numeral after the name of metal.
Examples:
2    2  3
iron ion Fe II Fe III iron ion copper ion Cu I Cu II ion copper
An ancient method still widely used to distinguish between two different loads of a metal ion, use the endings "BEAR" or " ICO ", these terms represent the lowest load and the highest ion respectively. It uses the Latin root of the element. Examples
;
2  3 
Fe ferric ferrous iron Fe

 2 
cuprous ion Cu cupric ion Cu
The only polyatomic cations are listed below:
 2 
ammonium ion NH4 Hg I or mercurous mercury ion

3.2: BASIC OR METAL OXIDES

are binary compounds . When you combine a metal with oxygen (oxidation number 2 ) form the core or metal oxides. 
METAL OXIDE OXYGEN BASIC RULE NOMENCLATIRA

.
1. To write the formula is written first metal (cation) and then the oxygen (anion).
2. To name is written first oxides word "rust" followed by the preposition "de" and the name of "metal." Examples
;
 2  3  2 
O Na Na2O sodium oxide Al O  aluminum oxide Al2 O3

When the metal has several oxidation states as in the case of transition metals (Group B periodic table), the metal oxidation state is indicated by a roman numeral after their name. Examples
;
2  2  
Fe O II FeO iron oxide or iron oxide


Fe 3 O   Fe2 O3 III iron oxide or ferric oxide oxides



acid or anhydride compounds are binary. When NO combines metal with oxygen (oxidation number  2) oxides form acids or anhydrides.
NO METAL OXIDES   OXYGEN ACIDS CLASSIFICATION RULE


oxides to name acids, the prefixes mono, of, tri-, tetra, etc, to indicate the number of atoms of "oxygen" and the number of atoms "non-metal." Examples

;
CO 
carbon monoxide sulfur trioxide SO3 
O5 N2 nitrogen pentoxide 
O10 P4 phosphorus tetra  Decaóxido

Note: OXIDES acid or anhydride to react with WATER Oxoacids (acids with oxygen).
OXIDE ACID  WATER  Oxoacids

SO3  H2 O  H2SO4

CO2  H2O  H2CO3

3.3: ACID

An acid can be described as a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H +) when dissolved in water: The formulas of the acids contain one or more hydrogen atoms and an anionic group. According to the definition of Bronsted-Lowry acid is any substance that can donate protons (H +). In the formulas of all the acids the hydrogen element is written first. There are two kinds of acidic
(a) HYDRAZIDE
which contains no oxygen. Binary acids are formed by the combination of hydrogen with a non metal. Are named using the word acid generic Latin name followed by the non-metallic element with the ending water. At hydracids are considered as hydrides of the elements of groups VI and VII.
EXAMPLES: hydrogen sulfide H2S


HI hydroiodic acid HBr ácidobromhídrico
HF hydrofluoric acid
HCl hydrochloric acid
REMEMBER, HX (X = F, Cl, Br, I) in gaseous state is not an acid, in water dissociates to produce H + ions, its aqueous solution is called acid

EXAMPLE:
HCl (g) + H2O (l) → HCl (aq)
hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid

3.4: HYDRIDES

IONIC OR METAL HYDRIDES. Are binary compounds. Ionic hydrides the hydrogen form with more electropositive metals such as alkali and alkaline earth, becoming negatively charged hydrogen. METAL
  HYDRIDE HYDROGEN
CLASSIFICATION RULE

The nomenclature of hydrides or metal ion is done with the word "hydride" the preposition "de" and the name of "metal." Examples
;

Na H    NaH sodium hydride


Ca 2 H    calcium hydride CaH

HYDRIDES covalent. Are binary compounds. The number of hydrogen compounds are those which form covalent bonds, the number of compounds of hydrogen with carbon is enormous and most non-metals form several compounds with hydrogen.
NO METAL HYDRIDE   hydrogen covalently

CLASSIFICATION RULE
In covalent hydrides known common name is more prevalent than for the systematic nomenclature (IUPAC). Examples
;
CH4 Methane Carbon Hydride Hydride

NH3 Ammonia nitrogen

PH3 Phosphine Phosphorus Hydride

3.5: HYDROXIDES

When you combine a basic oxide or metal with water to form a hydroxide.

OXIDE HYDROXIDE BASIC   WATER

hydroxides are characterized by the hydroxyl radical (OH ), also called hydroxyl or hydroxyl. CLASSIFICATION RULE


To name these compounds enter the word "hydroxide", followed by the preposition "de" and the name of "metal" indicating its oxidation number Roman number (if it has several oxidation numbers). Examples
;

   K OH KOH potassium hydroxide

2    OH
Sr Sr (OH) 2 strontium hydroxide

2   
Cu OH Cu (OH) 2 Copper II hydroxide

4    OH
Sn Sn (OH) 4 hydroxide tin IV

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There is a type of forces, although they are not true blogs, interact one to another molecule to produce an attractive force between them. These forces are known as intermolecular forces and are: hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals forces. Hydrogen bond



This type of forces present in compounds containing covalent bonds between hydrogen and a very electronegative atom, such as fluoride (HF), oxygen (HO) or nitrogen (HN, creating a dipole dipole attraction very strong. This type of binding occurs when a hydrogen atom from a molecule is attracted to a negative charge center of another molecule.
The attraction molecular hydrogen bridge can occur between the same or between different molecules. It is noted with a dotted line (.....) as shown in the example, (which the teacher presented in class.)
compounds whose molecules exhibit hydrogen bonding attraction have higher boiling points compared to analogous compounds of elements of the same group.
Examples: water boiling point 100 degrees Celsius.

Van der Waals forces
These are purely electrostatic forces. That is, they occur as a result of the attraction between opposite electrical load centers, very close together.
in the case of polar molecules, it is easy to understand the attraction between the positively charged (& positive) and the partial negative & negative). However, there are polar molecules, or which, when approaching each other, by the action of an external agent, such as temperature, induced dipoles are formed. With that also appear Van der Waals forces.

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Intermolecular Forces Liaison

METAL LINK
This link is presented in metals and alloys to form metallic glasses. Nature
link: Red crystal ions hardware (very electropositive elements) where the valence electrons are exchanged quickly.
Examples are substances that have: all metals, Au, Na, Fe, Ag, alloys such as steels, amalgams of mercury, copper and its alloys Cu - Zn, Cu-Ni, Cu - Sn, etc.
Properties derived from this type of link. Melting points, high boiling, metallic luster, hardness, malleability (rolling, stretching, bending), ductility (thread, wire), high electrical and thermal conductivity.
Another way to describe the metallic bonding is the existence of positive ions in a "sea electron gas" due to mobility of electrons, this mobility is due to the electrical conductivity and malleability.
In the "electron gas model" of metals, a regularly ordered lattice of positively charged metal ions is surrounded by electrons that can move freely. The easy mobility of the electron gas is responsible for the good electronic conductivity and thermal properties of metals.








If moving parts of a metallic glass, one over the other by a mechanical action (a). Each component in each new position above the same neighborhood, therefore, displacement, and thus the malleability of a metal, are easily possible without losing cohesion. By contrast, in an ionic crystal (b) components, by moving, are parties to the same charge: promotes mutual repulsion easily break the glass.


(a)

(b)
Note: The examples will be seen in class to visualize the diagrams, and drawings that does not accept the Blog.

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Metallic Covalent bond Ionic bond

The bond between two atoms that share electrons.
For example, the formation of the chlorine molecule, which exists as a diatomic molecule (Cl2). Their union as ionic bond is not possible, because a chlorine atom can not transfer an electron to another atom, chlorine also complete its octet, it would get the first six electrons in its valence shell.
To explain the link of this molecule and others in which atoms join the same or similar electronegativity. Lewis suggested that a chemical bond can be formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons, so that both atoms complete their octet in the valence shell.
2s22p6 3s2 3p2 17Cl 1s2 3p2 1s2 3p1 2s22p6
Cl2 3p2 3s2 3p2 1s2 3p2

17Cl 2s22p6 3s2 3p2 3p2 3p1
In this form of marriage, the two chlorine atoms have 8 electrons in its valence shell. This union is known as covalent bonding. This link is when the electronegativity of two atoms that bind the same or different (bends that electronegativity is the force with which an atom attracts the bonding electrons).
is necessary to consider that the more electronegative element is fluorine atom, with a value arbitrarily consider Lewis (4). When the electronegativity difference between atoms is too large the bonding electrons are transferred completely to the more electronegative atom, forming an ionic bond, and when this difference is small, it means that atoms have similar attractive force on the electrons, so that share, forming a covalent bond.
nonpolar covalent bond, polar and coordinated.
• nonpolar covalent. When the electronegativity difference is zero, the bond is covalent and the electron cloud of the link is evenly distributed around the two nuclei of atoms they join. When this happens, we say that it is a nonpolar covalent. Usually formed by two identical atoms, for example, hydrogen molecules (H2), chlorine (Cl2), fluorine (F2). Represent these samples using the Lewis structure and diagram area, the fluorine molecule. Lewis Diagram
:




covalent bond Cloud

electronic link


Nuclei

polar covalent
• The polar covalency occurs when the electronegativity difference is greater than zero but less than 1.7. analyze the formation of the molecule of hydrogen bromide, HBr. Electronegativades table (found in chemistry textbooks in the chapter on chemical bonding), we obtain the value of each atom and we can determine the difference in electronegativity. • Br ₌
2.8
-
H ₌ 2.1 0.7 Difference

electronegativity
The bromine atom more strongly attract the electron pair and the electron density is higher in this atom, as shown:


representation of the electron cloud of a polar molecule





From this analysis, We conclude that the polar covalence is that which occurs when two atoms are linked by covalent bond have a partial electrical charge separation (δ and δ ₊ ⁻) caused by the difference in electronegativities. Δ ₊ δ
⁻
H - Br
coordinate covalent bond Such
exists when one of the two atoms brings the pair of addresses. Given this name because there is coordination between the two atoms so that both can meet the octet rule.
This link occurs when an atom has a pair of free electrons (eg, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, among others) and shares with another atom that needs electrons to complete the pair with a layer of eight electrons valence.
An example of coordinate covalent bond is the formation of ammonium ion (NH4 ₊) from ammonia (NH3 ₊), which shares the nitrogen electron pair with a proton (H ₊), which requires the pair of electrons to stabilize. The diagram and explanation
present it the teacher in class.

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is defined as:
• The type of bond that is formed by the complete transfer of electrons.
• It is the electrostatic force that binds two ions of opposite charge.
Example: LiCl (lithium chloride) in this case the lithium transfers an electron to the chlorine atom and thus both acquire the configuration of a noble gas. 17Cl 3Li

₊ 1s2 2s1 1s2 3p2 3s2 3p2 2s2 3p1 2P6

an electron transfer

Atoms alkali metal (flu IA) can only provide an electron, which have in its valence shell. The alkaline earth metals (group IIA) can transfer two or more electrons. There are atoms such as halogens (group VIIA), which need only one electron to complete its octet, and others such as oxygen, sulfur they need more than one electron.

By losing electrons, atoms become positive ions, also called cations, and winning become negative ions or anions. There is an electrostatic attraction between the two, being the force that holds together the ions in an ionic compound. Li

₊ Li ₊ ₊ Cl Cl ⁻ ⁻
Cation Anion Salt
(Lithium) (chloride) (sodium chloride)

Run the following examples:

₊ I K potassium iodide KI O

2RB ₊

rubidium oxide Ca S ₊ calcium sulfide

₊ Mg Br Magnesium bromide
Cl
Al ₊

aluminum chloride ionic compounds are formed by reacting atoms less electronegative elements, for example: group IA, IIA, IIIA group elements, with more electronegative elements, such as the VIA and group VIIA.
Note: Due to the difficulty of representing here the formation of ionic compounds with Lewis structures, this will be presented by the teacher in the classroom. However, after studying them is from their atoms and by structure Lewis, following the formation of ionic compounds.

1. MgO

2. Na2S

3.

Al2O3 4. KL

5. CaCl2

6. BaS

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Stability of atoms

CHEMICAL BOND Stability of atoms
Development
the following atomic orbitals. 2HE
1s2 1s2 2s2
10Ne 18Ar
2P6 2P6 1s2 2s2 3p6 3s 2
3s 2P6 36Kr 23p6 1s2 2s2 4s2 4p6 3d10 1s2
54Xe 3s 23p6 2P6 2s2 4p6 3d10 4s2 5p6 5S2 4D10
86Rn 3s 23p6 2P6 1s2 2s2 4p6 3d10 4s2 5S2 4D10 5p6 6S2 6p6 5d10 4f14

1s 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f
2s 2p fill these orbitals with the number of electrons corresponding
3s 3p 3d.
4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d 6f 7s 7p 7d 7f


How is the water molecule?
Both hydrogen and oxygen gain stability by sharing electrons.
8O +2 O 2p2 2s2 2p1
1s2 2p1 + 1s2 2s2 1S1 +1 s1 2p2 2p2 2p2 + H-H-
Oxygen won two electrons that takes the sub +2 and the hydrogen index lost 1 electron each therefore carries sub index -1.
Examples:
Writes electronic configuration of each of the following ions;

26Fe 17Cl
53I
47Ag 29Cu
Notes
who won and who lost electrons
Stresses ions have a noble gas electron configuration;
-2O
2P6 1s2 2s2 +2 Ca 2s2 1s2 3s2 3p6 2P6
+3 Fe (Ar) 4s2 3D3-3P
2P6 1s2 2s2 3p6 3s2 1s2 2s2-3N
2P6
We conclude that an atom takes on the stability of a noble gas to win, lose or share electrons in their valence shell when combined with other atoms forming chemical bonds. If the valence electrons are involved in the combination of atoms, then, to define valence as
COMBINATION BUILDING AN ATOM

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VALENCIA
is the combining capacity of an atom. To determine the valence of an atom, is referenced to the hydrogen atom, because when you are forming a binary compound (compound composed of two different elements) is never in combination with more than one atom of another element, which is why which gives a combined capacity of 1, ie its valence is 1.
Example:
hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid, HCl hydrogen atom combines with one of chlorine, so the valence of chlorine is also 1.
Cl-H1 CL17
2P6 3s2 3p2 1s2 3p2 2s2 3p1 + 1s2 1S1 3p2 3s2 3p2 2s2 3p2 2P6
H +
Therefore, the valence of hydrogen is +1 and that of chlorine is -1. D
The water molecule (H2O), oxygen combines with two hydrogen atoms, so their valence is -2. O8 O-2

3p2 2s2 3p1 1s2 3p1 1S1 + 1S1 + 3p2 1s2 3p2 2s2 3p2
H + H +
determines the valence following compounds: LiCl
,
CaCl2, AlCl3

metals (group IA) and alkaline earth (Group IIA) have a fixed valence +1, +2 respectively. There are other elements that have more than one valence or valence variable
Example:
carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon is the valence of +2 because it is combined with an oxygen atom, whose valence is -2, in the case of carbon dioxide (CO2) carbon has a valence of +4, then combined with two oxygen atoms in these cases the carbon valence of +2 and +4.
determines the valence of the following compounds:

N2O NO NO2


N2 O3 O5 N2
The nitrogen valences are 1, 2, 4, 3, 5 respectively.
the oxidation number is another concept used to describe the combining capacity of an atom. This is an integer that can be positive or negative and describes the combining capacity of an atom, as well as indicate the behavior of electrons in n compound.
In the compound lithium chloride (LiCl), lithium, losing an electron, remains ion (Li +) with an electrical charge of +1 or ion, which is equal to the number of oxidation, while chlorine, winning that electron, it becomes ion (CL-) with electric charge or oxidation number -1. As you can see by combining these two atoms, one loses an electron and the other wins, this indicates the behavior of the electron, ie, the oxidation number. LINKS BETWEEN ATOMS

Relationship between ionization energy and atomic number.
In the forming and breaking of chemical bonds, ionization energy and electrons play an important role. As we know, potential or ionization energy is the energy required to extract an electron from the atom, that energy must be able to break the force of attraction between electrons and protons in the nucleus. This force is inversely proportional to the distance between them, ie between an electron further away from the nucleus, the attraction will be less.
When an electron absorbs energy from outside the atom moves to a higher energy level (excited state) of which was (baseline), therefore, the distance from the nucleus increases and decreases the attractive force requiring less energy to remove it.
The ionization energy decreases in the periodic table upside down in a group and increases from left to right in a period analyzing the last paragraph and noting the position of the elements in the periodic table for those who are in a period closer to the noble gases, it takes more energy to remove an electron than those found at the beginning of the period, ie, the former tend to gain electrons and second to lose. Therefore
before starting the study of chemical bonds, we will explore ideas about the chemical bonds that provided the scientific Kossel and Lewis.

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Valencia Chemical Bond

CHEMICAL BOND
The unit I learned that chemistry is a science that is responsible for studying matter and its transformations also define the atom as the smallest particle of an element there, which is composed of electrons, protons and neutrons and can participate in a chemical reaction. Now analyze the chemical bond as the force that holds together two atoms or ions of opposite charge. But by joining the atoms, matter undergoes a transformation, and likewise, if we break this union, we are making a change in the structure of matter, so we can say that any transformation in the matter exists or break training chemical bonds, hence the importance of understanding how a bond is formed. DEFINITION OF CHEMICAL BOND
.
is the force that holds together two atoms or ions of opposite charge. CHEMICAL LINKS

1. Ion
2. Covalent. Non-polar, Polar, Coordinated
3. Metallic
4. Intermolecular forces. Hydrogen bond, Van der Waals forces
is important to remember that the links, the electrons play an important role, because in order to form there must be gain, loss or sharing of electrons between atoms that bind.
Example: look at the structure or electronic configuration of the element lithium (Li): Li3
1s2 2s1 valence shell
When compared with the noble gas helium (He) 1s2 He2

We realize that lithium, to acquire the configuration of helium, it makes up an electron. If lithium removes some form an electron, to stay with a proton more and, therefore, with an electric charge of + 1, then have the stable electronic configuration of noble gases:
Li3 1s2 2s1 Li + 1s2
I 1s2
now work with electronic configuration of chlorine (Cl): CL17
1s2 2s2 3s2 2P6 3P5 2P6
Ar18 1s2 2s2 3p6 3s2
purchase order for the chlorine argon configuration, it lacks an electron. If you somehow get the chlorine needed to achieve the electron configuration of argon, an electron will have more and, therefore, an electric charge of -1. Ie CL17
1s2 2s2 3s2 2P6 3P5 + e-Cl-2P6 2s2 1s2 3s2 1s2 2s2 3p6
Ar18 3s2 3p6 2P6
Now if combined lithium, you need to remove an electron, and chlorine that requires an electron, both acquire the settings stable noble gas, in this way is obtained the so-called lithium chloride:
Li · + Cl Li + Cl-
1s2 2s1 1s2 2s2 2P6 3S2 3P5 1s2 1s2 2s2 2P6 3s2 3p6

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STRUCTURE ATOMIC

INTRODUCTION
This subject aims, to prepare students of Biotechnology career in the knowledge base for the study of chemistry, thereby unifying previous knowledge to start the academic preparation at the undergraduate level
chemistry as well as other science, involving concepts and definitions that make up a form oral and written communication means a chemical language which must be known.
The concepts of atoms, electrons, protons and neutrons, isotopes, molecules, ions, cations, anions, electrolytes and others are described in this unit, in order to be useful for the understanding of subsequent topics. ATOMS

It is known that the concept atom was established in the V century a. C., by the Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus, on the assumption that matter can be divided many times in succession until you reach the limit of a particle whose size makes it impossible to divide it even more, a particle that's called "atoms."
The word atom is of Greek origin that means . At present, the atom can be defined as: a.
"Fundamental unit of the elements that may participate in a chemical reaction." B.
"Minimum mass of an element which can operate in a chemical reaction."
The definition of "atom" not differ much from that expressed by Democritus and later established by John Dalton in 1808, who established the first theory of the atom under the following assumptions:
1. Every element is made of tiny particles called atoms.
2. The atoms of one element are equal in mass and size.
3. Atoms of different elements have different mass and size.
4. The atom can not be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
5. Atoms of different s elements combine to form compounds and do so in a simple numerical relationships and another atom.
6. Two or more atoms of different elements can be combined in different relationships to form more than one type of compound.
Dalton's atomic theory was well accepted in his time, however, the investigations carried out after that time has shown that:
1. Not all atoms of the same element have the same mass, as with isotopes.
2. The atom consists of subatomic particles (electrons, protons and neutrons).
3. Under certain conditions, an atom of an element can be converted to another atom of a different element, like radioactive elements.

Despite these failures, the theory Dalton atomic marked the beginning of studies of the atom and the subsequent development of chemistry.
Moreover, as a result of experimental evidence now known, that the atom consists of at least three fundamental particles: electrons

ü ü ü Neutron Proton

Atoms have a very small core containing Most of the mass of the atom and is composed of protons and neutrons. Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus. ELECTRON
.- It is a subatomic particle that has a negative charge, the absolute mass, calculated for the electron is raised to 9.109x10 -28 grams. Because the electron is the lowest charged particle, is also the unit of electric charge and its representation as the relative burden is "-". PROTON
.- It is a subatomic particle which is located in the atomic nucleus and possessing electric charge, equal in magnitude to the electron (1.602x10 coulombs to -9, but positive. The proton charge is the unit of positive electricity and representation as the relative burden is "+". The absolute mass of the proton is to 1.672x10 -24 grams and is 1836 times greater than the mass of the electron.
Neuton .- It is a subatomic particle which is located in the atomic nucleus and has no load is electrically neutral and its mass is similar to that of the proton.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER. INTRODUCTION

Men, by nature, have always had the need to find logical explanations for why things happen. This admiration philosophical wonder at the phenomena and inexplicable events, which raises the question about the causes, became permanent desire for the pursuit of truth, and is so far the reason that has brought humanity to Over time, the discovery of laws governing the phenomena of nature.
Today, indisputable, the extent to which science has changed the of human beings. We appreciate for example the different types of materials, products and processes used in industry in general to produce an infinite range of products, many of which are in daily use as medicines, foods, perfumes, soaps, detergents, plastics, textiles , lubricants, fertilizers, insecticides, among others, that give us satisfaction, welfare and therefore safer to humans.
This advancement in knowledge of how to carry out the chemical changes in matter, has made the man change his environment with new products which are mostly aimed at improving the quality of life. However, in many cases it has brought unexpected results, causing disturbance to the environment by excessive production of waste pollutants, both solid and liquid and gaseous, that these activities generate.
One of the challenges of chemistry as a science, is to optimize the procedures and techniques to obtain a higher quality finished products, trying to avoid as much damage to nature, it suffices to look at our beaches, rivers, ponds , fields, and what remains of the forests of our state to realize the continued deterioration caused these ecosystems.
These challenges, fortunately, are already being addressed by the scientific community in many countries as a result of extensive research, have begun to develop products whose packaging waste and biodegradable or recycled materials feasible. We know that certain plastics when exposed to sunlight, its polymers are fragmented and facilitate biodegradation, and packaged or processed products from raw materials feasible to recycle, such as cardboard, aluminum, glass, etc., And not previously occurred. Therefore, future biotechnologists to be formed in this institution, have the opportunity to participate with their knowledge and innovations technology in this crusade.
Therefore, the chemistry course, which will provide the necessary basis begin to see how it intervenes and science relates to all aspects of our lives and the environment in which we live. PURPOSE OF THE UNIT

The student identifies the characteristics and properties of matter to analyze the origin of atomic models and the principles of quantum theory and quantum numbers. Using these insights as a basis, it is expected that participants recognize the importance of this knowledge to analyze, understand and evaluate the fundamental principles of chemistry contributes to the study of matter and much of life.




LEARNING OBJECTIVES Identify the physical and chemical properties of matter, in relation to the clarification of the phenomena that occur in nature.
analyze the principles that gave birth to the atomic structure, the nature of sub-atomic particles and atomic models in order to know the properties of atoms and their applications in life.
know the principle of quantum theory and the application of quantum numbers in the formation of electronic configurations that give rise to the formation of compounds by chemical bonds.

STRATEGIES TEACHING - LEARNING
is proposed pedagogical approach student-centered, enabling independent learning techniques multidisciplinary study, in which the teacher assumes his involvement as manager and facilitator of the learning process with a clear definition for achieving the objectives of competition, organized activities that generate significant learning and by encouraging collaboration and collective thinking as a valuable resource in acquiring new skills and attitudes.
For its part, students will look at the group's ability to search, socialize, and enhance collaborative learning by:
• Contribution of ideas, opinions and relevant information.
• Exchange of information sources and experiences.
• Support group exceeded their abilities.
• Propose activities relevant to the performance of the units of the course.
• Analysis, discussion and reflection on basic reading .. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

For the development of the unit suggests the following activities:
1. Individual and team exposure to the topics of the unit basic principles of the structure of matter.
2. Basic reading, is the analysis of items notes or upgraded sites with relevant information on unit content.
3. Analysis and accommodation of new learning product of reflection and acquisition of new knowledge.
4. Mediated mentoring refers to a very flexible and effective resource such as e-mail, you can also use the online chat system known as chat and finally the phone is.
5. Readings, consisting of articles, notes, books or websites updated with information that serves as a complement to those interested in exploring more about the issues and topics reviewed.
6. Collaborative team activities, with the aim of promoting interaction and communication between participants in a team engaged in activities which help learning to socialize.


DEVELOPMENT ISSUES ITEM 1. The physical and chemical properties of matter.
To identify the properties of matter and its relationship to physical and chemical phenomena that occur in nature.
ACTIVITIES: Activity
1.1 (individual). Read the document "History of Chemistry" same found on the page.
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_qu% C3% ADmica

Activity 1.2 (group). Analyze the previous reading based on the following questions and answer the following questions:
1. Why culture is considered the cradle of Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures?
2. Draw a diagram of the constitution of matter, according to Empedocles.
3. What was the contribution of Democritus and Leucippus on the nature of matter?
4. The Middle Ages is considered a dark age in science, why?
5. How did the study of organic chemistry?
This information must be delivered in writing, at a time agreed by the teacher and be part of the assessment unit.
ITEM 2. The atomic structure and nature of sub-atomic particles.
OBJECTIVE: Recognize the principles that gave birth to the atomic structure, the nature of sub-atomic particles and atomic models.
ACTIVITIES: Activity
2.1 (individual). Parses the document, "The atomic structure, in which is located on the blog page, http://aprendequimica2009.blogspot.com this document will help the structure of atoms, subatomic particles, and models atomic.
Activity 2.2 (plenary). Comment using the peer group technique, quartets and octets, the discovery of particles sub-atomic.
ITEM 3. Quantum theory, quantum numbers and electron configurations.
OBJECTIVE. Knowing the principle of quantum theory, the application of quantum numbers and the formation of electronic configurations.

Activity 2.3 (group). The teacher explained to the group, the principle of quantum theory and quantum numbers.
Activity 2.4 (individual). Prepare drawings, posters, or models that represent the structure of the atom, its atomic models and electron configurations of elements and compounds.